![]() ![]() For instance, Thames and Williams ( Reference Thames and Williams2013) find that cross-nationally the probability of having a female executive is highly correlated with female legislative representation and greater history of female political participation. The most serious challenge to studying the effects of symbolic representation is that women’s election into office is commonly endogenous to the social and political context that simultaneously shape gendered perceptions of female leadership. Malawi presents a unique opportunity to study how symbolic representation of a female president affects female parliamentary behavior. In turn, these mechanisms will lead to increased thick female representation.Įmpirically, we focus on the effect of Malawi’s first female president, Joyce Banda, on female thick representation. Specifically, we argue that the presence of a female president serves to normalize female political power, redefine gendered norms about appropriate female political behavior and competences, and create momentum for more assertiveness among female MPs. We argue that the presence of a female president has an important intraelite symbolic effect and enhances female thick parliamentary representation. Whereas thin representation relates to the mere presence of women in parliament, thick representation refers to a form of representation where women are granted real voice and power in legislative assemblies. She argues that analysis should distinguish between “thin” and “thick” representation. ![]() Hassim ( Reference Hassim, Bauer and Britton2006, 173), writing about the role of women in African parliaments, notes that female MPs remain marginalized in parliamentary affairs through the subtle (or sometimes not so subtle) gendered hierarchies that still persist within political institutions. Still, some authors have questioned the extent to which increased female parliamentary representation has led to real female parliamentary leadership (Beckwith and Cowell-Meyers Reference Beckwith and Cowell-Meyers2007 Childs and Krook Reference Childs and Mona2008 Weldon Reference Weldon2002). Women have gained increasing numerical parliamentary representation around the world (e.g., Krook Reference Krook2010 Stockemer Reference Stockemer2011). More precisely, we study how a female president may empower female members of parliament (MPs) to assert more parliamentary leadership and change their parliamentary behavior. But, as the literature on symbolic representation reminds us, a dearth of female political leadership may in itself perpetuate an image of appropriate female roles in public life (Alexander and Jalazai Reference Alexander and Jalalzai2020 Simien Reference Simien2015 Wolbrecht and Campbell Reference Wolbrecht and Campbell2007).īuilding on the work by Franceschet, Krook, and Piscopo ( Reference Franceschet, Krook and Piscopo2012), Bauer ( Reference Bauer2016, 224) defines symbolic representation as: “altering gendered ideas about the role of women and men in politics, raising awareness of what women can do as political actors and legitimizing them as political actors, or encourage women to become involved themselves in politics as voters, activists, candidates and leaders.” Whereas most research on symbolic representation has concentrated on the way in which female political role models may shape attitudes and behaviors at the mass level (e.g., Barnes and Taylor-Robinson Reference Barnes, Taylor-Robinson, Alexander, Bolzendahl and Jalalzai2017 Liu Reference Liu2018 Liu and Banaszak Reference Liu and Banaszak2017 Morgan and Bruise Reference Morgan and Buice2013 Zetterberg Reference Zetterberg2009), this paper focuses on the symbolic effect of a female president at the elite level. Footnote 1 Lack of female presidents and prime ministers is a symptom of wider gender inequalities-both social and economic (Stockemer and Byrne Reference Stockemer and Byrne2011). Reference O’Brien, Mendez, Peterson and Shin2015 Thames and Williams Reference Thames and Williams2013). ![]() “My sisters, my daughters, everywhere, find your voices!” -Ellen Johnson Sirleaf, Liberia’s first female presidentĪcross the globe, female heads of government remain rare (Jalalzai Reference Jalalzai2008 Lawless Reference Lawless2015 O’Brien et al. ![]()
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